Thursday, October 31, 2019

Entrepreneurship and starting a small Business Term Paper

Entrepreneurship and starting a small Business - Term Paper Example Finally, conclusions with key findings and appropriate recommendations have been made. Starting one’s own business is an exciting, promising and high-risk proposition that usually stems from one single idea or a need. Study related to this process, usually referred to as entrepreneurship, has emerged as one of the most important outcomes of globalization. While significant part of a nation’s economic growth is through small business entrepreneurs, failure of this section of businessmen cannot be ruled out. In the current study, focus will be on efforts to identify various factors responsible for the success of small businesses and the challenges they face. An attempt will be made to list the core elements of successful entrepreneurship based on literature study and analysis before concluding with key findings. In his magazine article, Todorvic (2004) expresses that origins of entrepreneurship can be traced to early last century and is yet under lot of debate concerning its definition or actual meaning. He asserts that entrepreneurship is such a vast multidimensional and dynamic aspect of conducting business in the globalized world that it has been given multiple definitions from varied perspectives. Quoting various definitions from different people, Todorvic (2004) mentions that entrepreneurship, for instance, is concerned with starting one’s own business; entrepreneurship is the process by which new products, services or outcomes are created by people that can be recognized with certain specific characteristics. Specific characteristics have been associated with entrepreneurship, such as innovation, focus, discipline, passion, self-confidence, positive attitude, and persistence (Nieuwenhuizen & Machado, 2004). Koester (2010) asserts that an innovative opportunist is the one that m akes use of an opportunity in the marketplace and converts this into a promising business. Moreover, Koester (2010) also mentions that good interpersonal

Tuesday, October 29, 2019

ESP Course at Technical Secondary Vocational School for Construction and Building Trade students Essay Example for Free

ESP Course at Technical Secondary Vocational School for Construction and Building Trade students Essay The paper is about ESP course in technical secondary school to construct the trade students. The paper first discuses the meaning of ESP and then tells about its characteristics. It discusses the role of English as a trade and finance language globally and then further narrates the various steps that are being taken by various countries’ governments to promote English for Specific Purposes programs for its workforce. The paper reflects that these governments understand the importance of introducing ESP courses at secondary level so that their people can comfortable choose the vocational field of their own choice. This paper offers a research of made efforts especially by Asian countries. There are three reasons for the emergence of ESP (Kristen Gatehouse, 2001): i) The revolution in linguistics; ii) The demands of a Brave New World and iii) Focus on the learner ESP has some following characteristics (Kristen Gatehouse, 2001): †¢ ESP is to fulfill some particular requirements of the learner. †¢ ESP includes grammar, lexis, skills and varieties of activities. †¢ ESP can have some particular disciplines. †¢ ESP is mainly planned for intermediate or advanced students. †¢ ESP is planned for adult learners who can be at secondary level also that is in a professional work situation. According to Dudley Evans and St. John (1998), there are five major roles for an ESP practitioner: i) course designer; ii) teacher; iii) researcher; iv) collaborator and v) evaluator (Kristen Gatehouse, 2001). David Carter has categorized ESP in three parts (Kristen Gatehouse, 2001): †¢ English with some particular topics †¢ English for Occupational and Academic Purposes both †¢ English as a Restricted Language English with some particular topics transfer from purpose to topics and it is generally used by the scientists. Hutchinson and Waters have made three divisions of English for Occupational and Academic Purposes: a) English for Business and Economics that is EBE; b) English for Science and Technology that is EST; c) English for Social Studies that is ESS. English as a Restricted Language is used by traffic controllers and by waiters (Kristen Gatehouse, 2001). According to Carter (1983) ESP courses have three common features (Kristen Gatehouse, 2001): †¢ Authentic Material †¢ Purpose Related Orientation †¢ Self-Direction Dudley Evans (1997) has argued that ESP should be recommended at secondary or intermediate level. His argument was that at this stage authentic leaning material is very practical that can be modified and unmodified in form which makes it ESP’s main characteristic. It emphasizes on self directed study and research tasks. Most of the students were evaluated on the basis of independent study assignments for doing language preparation for Employment in Health Sciences where the learners needed to make researches and they had to show their area of interest. The students were motivated to make researches by using various kinds of resources including internet (Kristen Gatehouse, 2001). In the 21st century the function of English has become as the language of trade, technology and finance. This language is bonding the rest of the business world for international trade and economic development. The children who belong to this globalize age, it has become necessary for them to get hold of the communication abilities in English as a business and trade language (Dorothea C. Lazaro and Erlinda M. Medalla, 2004). As ESP program is spreading in various countries on different levels, in Czechoslovakia it began in 1991 that aimed to promote the teaching of ESP in the Technical Universities and their allied institutions (Serena Yeo, 1995). Presently the aim of the course is almost same but there are some changes to use it at some broader aspect to make it more influential. It aims to increase the confidence of teachers at secondary level. Various kinds of seminars are conducted by the advisors for the university lecturers and ESP teachers of vocational and specialist secondary schools (Serena Yeo, 1995). In many developing countries of Asia, the altering demands of the labor force are daring the utility of traditional schooling and university education. People want the assurance the skills and the language learned at school will help them professionally. In Japan, ESP is being widely recognized and ESP training programs are being given importance. The main idea is to motivate the students by improving their communication skills which later help them to adopt the professional field of their choice. China is also vigorously executing English proficiency training programs to motivate its people. ESP courses are being introduced at secondary level. In Taiwan, English has become compulsory subject at junior and senior levels in schools. Hong Kong is also following the same trend (Dorothea C. Lazaro and Erlinda M. Medalla, 2004). Now there is a hope that these motivations on various levels in many countries can have a bright future for ESP that is being understood a major effort to build the future of students professionally or vocational level. For making it more successful the role of teacher is also being assumed very significant. So it can be observed that the teaching of ESP at vocational level is very much demanding everywhere in schools.

Sunday, October 27, 2019

Investigating The Economic Impact Of The Olympic Games Tourism Essay

Investigating The Economic Impact Of The Olympic Games Tourism Essay Every year millions of people around the world travel either for business, vacation or a combination of both. Tourism is the biggest industry in the world and is continually growing (lecture 1). By the end of the 20th Century total global tourism (international and domestic) has been estimated to be worth at around U.S $3.5 trillion. Tourism has been widely accepted as growth industry and is expected to grow at an average rate of 4% per annum (sharpley and telfer). Both developed and developing nations all around the globe try to take advantage of this fact and in order to achieve greater economic growth and in the case of developing nations to achieve a higher standard of living as well. This makes the tourism industry a very competitive one, with nations trying to attract as many tourists as possible and reap the benefits. One way for countries to capture these benefits associated with tourism is to host different events. Getz (2007) identified and categorized them into different scales of events. These range from local and regional events like the Nottingham Music Festival and the European Youth Olympic Festival respectively to periodic hallmark events like the Formula One Grand Prix. The biggest category however is that of the Mega Events which include the Olympic Games and the World Cup. These events are of high tourist demand and have a high value for the host city in terms of economic, environmental, social, cultural and political impacts. It is important for the government of the hosting country as well as the hosting city to use policies to get as much positive effects as possible from these impacts whilst decreasing the negative ones. Roche (1994) defined mega events as short term events with long term consequences for the cities that stage them. He claims that if a host city is successful in programming the events correctly, a new or renewed image will be projected which would bring long lasting economic benefits in terms of tourism, investment and business. Moreover, he claims that with this new or renewed image the host city is able to become a center of capital and labor, production and exchange in the national and global economy (Roche, 1994). Therefore, it can be argued that the economic aspect of the Olympic Games is the most significant one and the economic legacies left behind by such events can change and reshape entire cities. In order to gain a better understanding of the economic impacts of mega events, and more specifically of the Olympic Games, these impacts must be separated in accordance to whether they happen before, during or after the event (Li S. Blake). An analysis will follow that will explain these different stages in terms of the Olympics and the relevant economic impacts as well as the policies the government can adopt to gain the maximum positive outcomes of the event. The pre-game period is a time of planning and deadlines, investments both private and public and construction. Moreover, once the city wins the bidding process the news of this fact are echoed all around the world. This may tempt tourists to visit the country prior to the event. The period during the Games has certain economic impacts that come from the tourists and the revenues the event brings and it is a way to show the world the change that the city underwent through the media exposure that surrounds the Games. The most important period is after the Games however, since it is when the results will start to take effect. This is the aim of the host cities, to capture the long term economic effects or the economic legacy the games create. The economic legacy involves the extra tourists that will want to visit the host city; businesses may be attracted to relocate there; the establishment of the city as a business hub and generally the increased economic growth to the host city as we ll as the whole economy of the country. First of all, one of the characteristics of the Olympic Games is the amount of money it attracts that is subsequently invested in them during the pre-game period. These funds come from the public and private sector and are spent on the construction of sport venues, tourism facilities and infrastructure (Sakai, 2006). These funds are different from the organizational costs the Olympic Organizing Committee has. The organizational costs relate to items not usable after the Games whereas the investments mentioned above will continue to serve the city in the future. The Barcelona Olympics of 1992 had total organizational costs of 1.364 billion U.S Dollars ($) and investments amounting to $8.012 billion (Poynter, 2006). By looking at this from an economics point of view, investments are part of the circular flow of income, it is an injection, and as such bring economic growth and job creation and has long term effects (Sloman, ). Barcelona for example, focused 61.5% of these investments for construction work which includes transport infrastructure, housing, offices and business premises, telecommunication and services, hotels, sports facilities and environmental infrastructure. This is a clear indicator of Barcelonaà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s restructuring effort (Brunet, 2005). Furthermore, the construction effort that is being funded will bring increased employment in the city, decreasing unemployment and as a result increase the standard of living of its local citizens. In Barcelona, unemployment rates fell from 18.4% in 1986 to 9.6% in 1992 (Brunet, 2005). If the standard of living is raised, there will be great social effects (a decrease in crime due to the rise of employment, people would want to live in better conditions and will be able to afford them as well as many more). These in turn can bring greater economic impacts because tourists visiting the city will be able to see the change and difference and the probability of experiencing an enjoyable stay will increase substantially. This might affect them to consider visiting the city again, during the games or after, and they may spread their experiences through word of mouth, indirectly advertising the city. These benefits however all depend on how the government decides to invest the money. Barcelona invested heavily in infrastructure $8.012 billion and the benefits can still be seen today, whereas Sydney only spent $3.03 billion (Poynter, 2006). In addition to this, it is important to include the opportunity costs associated with the building of Olympic Venues. According to Owen (2005), these investments must not be considered as benefits for the economy but rather as costs. This is because opportunity costs are very high since the money spent on Olympic venues could have been spent on other public needs like health and education which also leads to long term economic growth (Li, Blake). Taking the example of Barcelona again, the spending associated with Olympic venue construction (9.1%) is insignificant compared with the 61.5% allocated for other infrastructure. As stated above, investment in infrastructure is an injection which brings long term economic benefits and Barcelona investe d heavily in that area. This may be one of the reasons why Barcelona has had steady economic growth the twelve years after the games.

Friday, October 25, 2019

Gender Identity and Social Structures Essay -- Gender Socialization So

Gender Identity and Social Structures What is meant by identity? Firstly this essay is going to explore what is meant by identity. Identity is made up of individual characteristics by which a person is known. Internal factors such as physical appearance, personality, mental ability and sex would have an effect on a person’s identity. Then there are the external factors such as family, class, religion, culture, occupation and nationality which would influence one’s identity. Then, even beyond all these personal and social structures, societal opinions about gender, race, culture, ethnicity and nationality must have an impact on identity. Many attributes of identity are formed from childhood experience, adolescence, early adulthood and are ever forming. Identity can therefore be ever changing externally according to the life experiences through which a person goes through. Births, deaths, marriage, divorce, abuse, immigration, good or bad fortune for example are likely to cause change, and therefore influence change to identity. These may ultimately result in a change to the internal identity: physical, mental etc Gender identities are formed by several different factors, i.e. individual and collective; social and biological. Biologically, it would be quite easy to look at the body of a person and be able to distinguish between a male and a female, from their genitalia. A female would be identified by the absence of a penis. The problem with defining gender identity by simply using anatomical evidence is that is this day and age, we live in a society where most of our bodies are generally covered by clothing, so judgement can also be obscured by the unisex clothes that are worn by both men and women. Most of us are always manipulating our outer appearance according to the latest trends or fashion. It is more acceptable for a woman to wear clothing that is generally thought of as more masculine, but it is seldom that a man can wear clothing that is thought of as feminine. In such case where a man was to wear feminine clothing such as dresses, skirts, frilly blouses, stockings or high heels this would be known as cross dressing. Women on the other hand can wear trousers, jackets and even ties and this is considered completely normal. The same can be said for make-up and hairstyle. Traditionally, woman generally had long hairstyles and men had s... ...cupation such as hairdressing, fashion or beauty, you would dress in a more trendy fashion as you are selling an image to your clientele. The colleagues with whom you work often become a part of your social group of peers. It is more likely that people will socialize in circles of people with common occupations or similar earning power. As well as â€Å"putting food on the table, clothes on our backs and a roof over our heads†, employment provides us with a sense of worth, it feeds our pride. Someone who is unemployed, whether or not by choice, may be labeled as lazy and useless, and have a general lack of respect from society. Especially if it is not by their own choice, they probably feel worthless. Although it is now common for women to go out to work, men still see their roles as the main breadwinner. Where once that was their role, and the women stayed at home to look after the needs of their husbands and children, women are now holding down high-powered jobs, as well as still seeing to the general needs of their families. Occupation and income are both important aspects of identity, who we are, how we see ourselves, how we represent ourselves and how others see us.

Thursday, October 24, 2019

Drama Paper on Trifles †Susan Glaspell Essay

Susan Glaspell’s one act play Trifles is based upon actual events which occurred in Iowa at the turn of the century. Between 1899 and 1901 she worked as a reporter for the Des Moines News, during which time she covered a murder trial of a farmer’s wife, Margaret Hossack. The play was written some years later. (enotes. com, 2005) This essay aims to analyze the themes and ideas presented here by analyzing the central character. The full text of this play can be retrieved from http://www. vcu. edu/engweb/eng384/trifles. htm This paper aims to show, by conducting an analysis of the central character, Mrs. Wright (the accused), and discussing her thoughts, feelings and actions, how she is affected by events, other characters and environmental culture and values. Mrs. Wright is a farmer’s wife at the turn of the century, at a time when feminism was beginning to come to the fore, but many years before the active burning of bras, in the 1960s, without children. Moreover, she is married to a man who is not known in the outside community for his social skills – to quote Mrs. Hale, one of the female characters in the play, to pass the time of day with him would be like a raw wind that gets to the bone. We never actually meet Mrs. Wright in person, but it is from the conversation of the others that we learn about her. For instance, from the women’s observations, and despite the comments of the men, we learn that Mrs. Wright is in fact a good homemaker – she quilts well, is diligent about her preserves, the pans were neatly arranged under the sink, and the roller towel was in fact clean prior to Mrs. Wright’s departure (it was dirtied by the man who came in later). She also had bread set ready to be baked. This attitude displayed by the males in the play is indicative of unfair judgements made by men at the time. Even the title of the play, Trifles, indicates that what women worried about at the time was considered unimportant. Thoughts, feelings and actions Mrs. Wright, prior to her marriage, was a singer. We learn also that later in her marriage, she buys a bird. It becomes apparent that Mr. Wright cannot tolerate the bird’s singing and kills it. The women deduce that Mrs. Wright has begun to equate herself with the bird – initially feeling caged, stifled and killed – prior to her marriage, she went out, sang and had fun, and in the very last act, the cage broken, symbolizing freedom, if not of the bird’s body, at least of its spirit. Unwittingly, in one of the opening sentences, Mr. Hale contributes to this image of Mrs. Wright being oppressed by commenting that he didn’t think that what his wife wanted mattered much to Mr. Wright. Having lost everything prior to this, Mrs. Wright could not tolerate the loss of the one thing that she loved. This death of the bird was the act of anger that the men did not find. Her marriage has been similar to a caging, killing (of herself), and in the final act of killing her husband, she has in fact set herself free – although ironically she is now in jail. Mrs. Hale hits the nail on the head when in hindsight she realizes indirectly that Mrs. Wright was lonely – the unpleasantness and coldness of the place which kept her away kept others away too. With the death of the bird the one thing that was fun had now gone too. Interestingly, the bird died of strangulation – and Mr. Wright also died because of being constricted around his neck. Environmental culture The men have gone there with their minds made up and to them it is just a matter of trying to find the proof. The women have gone there with no such convictions, through going about their business they find the truth and yet are still able to show compassion – they decide to take Mrs. Wright the quilt, so that she can undo the last untidy square and complete a nice piece of work. Doing this, they find the dead body of the bird. Having been constricted and confined in life, the bird has been laid to rest in the most beautiful place Mrs. Wright can think of. They also find good fruit and decide to take this to her to convince her that after all her fruit did not rot. Instinctively, they know that this will make her feel better about herself. It is interesting that although it is the men who are there to investigate the case and get to the bottom of things, it is the women, through their observations and insight, get to the truth of the matter. They are the ones who notice, and understand, the erratic sewing of the last quilted square, for instance. The men believe that everything is clear, except for a reason for doing it – which they have not discovered despite having occupied the same premises as the women for the same amount of time. The women think briefly about disclosing this – their eyes meet – but they say nothing. They do not discuss it with the men – it would not be their place. Women at the time were considered inferior, the men where the authority. Thus, although some do know the truth, in fact, because of environmental cultures and the norm of the time, it is never discovered fully. Over 100 years later, one must believe, and be grateful that this would no longer happen. We have learned through trial and error and instances such as this that there are a variety of viewpoints and insights that can help us get to the truth. Works Cited Enotes. com, 2005, retrieved 10 April 2006 from the website http://www. enotes. com/trifles/ Trifles, Susan Glaspell, 1916, retrieved 10 April 2006 from the website http://www. vcu. edu/engweb/eng384/trifles. htm

Wednesday, October 23, 2019

Benefit Types and Services of Lakeland Police Department

The duty of the Lakeland Police Department is to ensure peace and order as well as to enhance the standard of living of the citizens they serve. They are committed to the values of respect, integrity, teamwork and excellence. Theirs is the immense responsibility of being a protector to countless lives while endangering themselves in the process. Putting themselves in line, making themselves their last priority is their belief. Benefits One of the benefits that an officer accumulates is a life insurance.In case of an officer’s death, financial support will be given to his loved ones, to be more specific it can be his children, spouse or relatives. It is to ensure that once he disintegrated on this earth, his loved ones can enjoy the fund as a form of compensation. Another type of benefit is the medical fee. In case an officer is injured, pharmaceuticals, hospital rooms, physician fees and fee for a surgeon are available. Dentals may or may not be included it all depends on the arrangements. This type of benefit, with their jobs as an officer may be the most used one of all.Once an officer is retired he can enjoy the fruits of his years of labor by means of a retirement fee. It is to guarantee that he can still receive funds without having to work and he will have a means a capital in case he wants to forego on a particular business. In their hazardous job, it is bound that one is to suffer from a disability while ensuring the safety of others. A disability benefit is in order so that it can perform as an income replacement in case an officer cannot perform his duties anymore.It is also subdivided into two types, the long term and the short term disability benefits. Another type of classification is the paid time off benefit where he can still earn income while spending his holidays with family, suffering from sickness or enjoying a vacation. The Services Apart from protecting civilians, the Lakeland Police Department offers a lot of services to their citi zens in accordance with their mission and vision. First they give vital information on how to protect homes, oneself, children and neighbors from being a victim of a crime.They visit public and private, knocking in houses, distributing leaflets, posting in posters and the like that contains the necessary precautions needed. They host in awareness programs on the unsafe places like railroad crossings to prevent unnecessary accidents. They also attend vigils for the diseased, held programs for street children and orphans as well as distribute awards for the outstanding performances of certain individuals. The one they held in December 2007 was entitled â€Å"Do the Right Thing† award that was given to 5 children in Lakeland.In addition, they ensure the health of the citizens by providing first aid for minor injuries, rescue squad support for emergency situations, immunization, literature on health issues, semi-annual tuberculosis screening program, confidential blood pressure a nd weight screening and they provide information on community and health programs including a low-cost student health insurance plan designed for Lakeland students. They patrol on communities, make the necessary traffic controls and gives room for lost and found properties.They give importance to children by establishing Juvenile programs that is targetted to make them happy and healthy youth of the nation. Lakeland Police Department is not only intent punishing law-offenders but also to make sure that the visctims of such crime is safe, menatlly and hysically. They created programs to help them in making a new, if not a better life. It is through these services that mekes Lakeland Police Department become indespensible to the community and the people of Lakeland. References www. insidelakelandpd. org

Tuesday, October 22, 2019

Free Essays on Why Catcher In The Rye Banned

Why the book was banned The Catcher in the Rye has long ignited disapproval, and it was the most frequently banned book in schools between 1966 and 1975. Even before that time, the work was a favorite target of sensors. In 1957, Australian Customs seized a shipment of the novels that had been presented as a gift to the government by the U.S. ambassador. The books were later released, but Customs had made its point that the book contained obscene language and actions that were not appropriate behavior for teenagers. In 1960, a teacher in Tulsa, Oklahoma, was fired for assigning the book to a 7th grade English class. The teacher appealed to the court and was put back by the school board, but the book was removed from use in the school. The following year in Oklahoma City, the novel became the focus of a legislative hearing in which a locally organized censorship group sought to stop the Mid-Continent News Company, a book wholesaler, from carrying the novel. Members of the group parked a 'Smutmobile' outside the capital building during the hearing and displayed the novel with others. As a result of public pressure, the wholesaler dropped the books from its inventory. In 1977 parents in Pittsgrove Township, New Jersey, challenged the assignment of the novel in an English class. They charged that the book included profanity that promoted premarital sex, homosexuality, and perversion, as well as claiming that it was explicitly pornographic and immoral. After months of controversy, the board ruled that the novel could be read in the advanced placement class for its universal message, not for its profanity, but they gave parents the right to decide whether or not their children would read it. The challenges to the novel have continued well into the 1990s. In 1991, the novel was challenged at Grayslake Community High School in Illinois for profanity, and students in Jamaica High School in Sidell, Illinois, cited profanities and the dep... Free Essays on Why Catcher In The Rye Banned Free Essays on Why Catcher In The Rye Banned Why the book was banned The Catcher in the Rye has long ignited disapproval, and it was the most frequently banned book in schools between 1966 and 1975. Even before that time, the work was a favorite target of sensors. In 1957, Australian Customs seized a shipment of the novels that had been presented as a gift to the government by the U.S. ambassador. The books were later released, but Customs had made its point that the book contained obscene language and actions that were not appropriate behavior for teenagers. In 1960, a teacher in Tulsa, Oklahoma, was fired for assigning the book to a 7th grade English class. The teacher appealed to the court and was put back by the school board, but the book was removed from use in the school. The following year in Oklahoma City, the novel became the focus of a legislative hearing in which a locally organized censorship group sought to stop the Mid-Continent News Company, a book wholesaler, from carrying the novel. Members of the group parked a 'Smutmobile' outside the capital building during the hearing and displayed the novel with others. As a result of public pressure, the wholesaler dropped the books from its inventory. In 1977 parents in Pittsgrove Township, New Jersey, challenged the assignment of the novel in an English class. They charged that the book included profanity that promoted premarital sex, homosexuality, and perversion, as well as claiming that it was explicitly pornographic and immoral. After months of controversy, the board ruled that the novel could be read in the advanced placement class for its universal message, not for its profanity, but they gave parents the right to decide whether or not their children would read it. The challenges to the novel have continued well into the 1990s. In 1991, the novel was challenged at Grayslake Community High School in Illinois for profanity, and students in Jamaica High School in Sidell, Illinois, cited profanities and the dep...

Sunday, October 20, 2019

Astronomy †Distance in The Stars and The Solar System

Astronomy – Distance in The Stars and The Solar System Free Online Research Papers Astronomy Distance in The Stars and The Solar System ***All italic words are located at the bottom accompanied by their definitions*** The Solar System The solar system consists of the Sun, nine planets, sixty-eight satellites (of the planets), large numbers of comets and asteroids, and the interplanetary medium. All the planets orbit in the same counter-clockwise direction looking down from above the Sun’s north pole or in a prograde direction. All except for Venus and Uranus, whose rotations are defined as retrograde. The nine planets are classified in several ways: By composition: Terrestrial or rocky planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars: The terrestrial planets are composed mostly of rock and metal and have relatively high densities, slow rotation, solid surfaces, no rings and very few satellites. o Jovian or gas planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune: ? The gas planets are composed primarily of hydrogen and helium, and generally have low densities, rapid rotation, deep atmospheres, rings and lots of satellites. By size: o Small planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars and Pluto. ? The small planets have diameters less than 13000 km. o Giant planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. ? The giant planets have diameters greater than 48000 km. o Mercury and Pluto are sometimes referred to as lesser planets (not to be confused with minor planets which is the official term for asteroids). o The giant planets are sometimes also referred to as gas giants. By position relative to the Sun: o Inner planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. o Outer planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. o The asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter forms the boundary between the inner solar system and the outer solar system. By position relative to Earth: o Inferior planets: Mercury and Venus. ? They are closer to the Sun compared to the Earth. ? The inferior planets show phases like the Moons when viewed from Earth. o superior planets: Mars thru Pluto. ? farther from the Sun than Earth. ? The superior planets always appear full or nearly so. By History: o classical planets: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. ? known since pre-historical times ? visible to the unaided eye o modern planets: Uranus, Neptune, Pluto. ? discovered in modern times ? visible only with telescopes Stars: Are huge spherical masses of gas that began radiating energy because of nuclear reactions occurring deep within their interiors They differ in size, shape, luminosity, temperature, and composition Distance To Stars: First measured by Friedrich Bessel in 1838, method called Trigonometric Parallax As the earth moves around the sun, a star relatively nearby will appear to shift its position in the sky relative to more distant stars. By measuring these minute angular shifts, the distance of a star can be determined trigonometrically. Half of the total apparent shift of the star with respect to the background is called the star’s trigonometric parallax. It follows that the parallax of a star is the angle formed t the star by the triangle formed between the star and each end of the radius of the earth’s orbit. Glossary: Jovian planets: The planets with orbits beyond that of Mars: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. Parallax: The apparent change in position of a star relative to the distant, background stars as seen from the Earth at opposite points in its orbit around the sun. Prograde: Counterclockwise, when viewed from north of the ecliptic, rotation of a celestial body around its axis. Retrograde motion: The motion of a planet from west to east among the stars over a lengthy period of time. It is when the earth overtakes another planet as they both orbit the sun. Star: A celestial body made up of hot gases held together by its own gravity and emitting light and heat resulting from its internal nuclear reactions. Our Sun is a typical star. Terrestrial planets: The planets with orbits within the orbit of Jupiter, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. The Distance To A Star Tan( 1 ) = 93 000 000 Miles 9000 X X= 4.8 x 10 A.U.= Astronomical Unit= 150 million Kilometres = 93 million Miles 1 minute= 1 1 second= 1 60 3600 A= 0.4 seconds = 1 9000 Research Papers on Astronomy - Distance in The Stars and The Solar SystemThe Spring and AutumnWhere Wild and West MeetThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseCanaanite Influence on the Early Israelite ReligionBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of Self19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalDefinition of Export QuotasMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductResearch Process Part One

Saturday, October 19, 2019

American Weight Gain and the Primary Concern

American Weight Gain and the Primary Concern Introduction A primary concern for many Americans is undesirable weight gain, which relates to food choices made daily. But what if people are aware of their food choices, but not what is in the actual food itself? With obesity on a constant rise, as well as other major health issues, many individuals are searching for reasons and answers. As most humans are omnivores, we consume various amounts of carbohydrates, sugars, and other fatty substances. In particular, high fructose corn syrup which is found in many of the daily food choices we consume. Yet ask yourself do you know what high fructose corn syrup is, or where it is found? In a society where maintaining a healthy lifestyle is important people need to investigate what he or she is putting in their bodies, such as high fructose corn syrup. What is high fructose corn syrup? High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is a fructose-glucose liquid inducement substitute to sucrose (also known as table sugar) which was first presented to food and beverage manufacturing in the 1970s. It is not expressively diverse in structure or metabolism from other fructose-glucose sweeteners like honey, sucrose, and fruit juice concentrates. High fructose corn syrup was extensively incorporated by food formulators, and its consumption increased around the mid-1970s and mid-1990s, mainly as a spare for sucrose. This was primarily because of its sweetness similar to that of sucrose, better-quality constancy and functionality, and ease of use. High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), also called isoglucose, is mainly a blend of two sugars, fructose and glucose. Soda and ice cream often merger 55 percent fructose and 45 percent glucose, while the HFCS used in canned fruits and condiments is generally a 42/48 percent mix (with other ingredients). White sugar is a 50/50 split. In the United State s, heavy corn supports and sugar-import barricades have made HFCS some 20 percent cheaper than sugar. The United States accounted for nearly 80 percent of global construction in 2004 and U.S. patrons accepted 58 pounds of the syrup per person last year in numerous harvests, conferring to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Other producers include Japan, Argentina, the European Union, and China. Some claim that HFCSs global growth and the parallel rise in obesity are related. The troubled dietitians debate that, unlike glucose, which activates appetite-suppressing indications in the body, fructose does not tell its consumers to stop. The theory rests unconfirmed, but a growing body of literature has recommended the syrup may certainly respond the satiation-hormone leptin. Conflicting research, reinforced by the American Beverage Institute, claims HFCS is no dissimilar than other sweeteners and is safe in control. The food manufacturing began to substitute cane and beet sugar with HFCS after sugar prices quadrupled in the 1970s, and a few years later soft-drink businesses followed suit. The syrups affordability in the United States has aided soda businesses retail greater bottles and greatly expand ingesting of the calorie-rich drinks. You wont find it on the U.S.D.A. pyramid, but theres a food category that includes breakfast cereals, ice cream, granola bars, hot dog buns, baby food, soft drinks, yogurt, soup, ketchup and barbecue sauce. Those and countless other products found on the shelves of any grocery store are united by a common ingredient: high-fructose corn syrup. The increasing use of the sweetener over the past three decades roughly corresponds with a dramatic rise in obesity and related health problems among Americans, and some experts on nutrition say thats no coincidence. The question of whether high-fructose corn syrup presents a distinct health threat or is unfairly blamed for the effects of general overconsumption is a divisive one, spawning disagreement even among scientists with no financial stake in the answer. For decades, processed foods were usually sweetened with liquified sugar, also called sucrose. But food researchers in the 1970s found a way to modify cornstarch into a syrup with a higher level of fructose, or fruit sugar, in relation to glucose, another form of sugar. Because the corn product is cheaper, easier to use and more durable than sugar derived from cane or beets, food manufacturers quickly adopted the new ingredient. (Diet sodas and other products contain newer sugar substitutes, such as aspartame and sucralose th at carry few or no calories.) The increased use of HFCS in the United States mirrors the rapid increase in obesity. The digestion, absorption, and metabolism of fructose differ from those of glucose. Hepatic metabolism of fructose favors de novo lipogenesis. In addition, unlike glucose, fructose does not stimulate insulin secretion or enhance leptin production. Because insulin and leptin act as key afferent signals in the regulation of food intake and body weight, this suggests that dietary fructose may contribute to increased energy intake and weight gain. Furthermore, calorically sweetened beverages may enhance caloric overconsumption. Thus, the increase in consumption of HFCS has a temporal relation to the epidemic of obesity, and the overconsumption of HFCS in calorically sweetened beverages may play a role in the epidemic of obesity. The digestive and absorptive processes for glucose and fructose are different. When disaccharides such as sucrose or maltose enter the intestine, they are cleaved by disaccharides. A sodium-glucose cotransporter absorbs the glucose that is formed from cleavage of sucrose. Fructose, in contrast, is absorbed further down in the duodenum and jejunum by a non-sodium-dependent process. After absorption, glucose and fructose enter the portal circulation and either are transported to the liver, where the fructose can be taken up and converted to glucose, or pass into the general circulation. The addition of small, catalytic amounts of fructose to orally ingested glucose increases hepatic glycogen synthesis in human subjects and reduces glycemic responses in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus (12), which suggests the importance of fructose in modulating metabolism in the liver. However, when large amounts of fructose are ingested, they provide a relatively unregulated source of carbon pr ecursors for hepatic lipogenesis. The metabolism of fructose differs from that of glucose in several other ways as well (3). Glucose enters cells by a transport mechanism (Glut-4) that is insulin dependent in most tissues. Insulin activates the insulin receptor, which in turn increases the density of glucose transporters on the cell surface and thus facilitates the entry of glucose. Once inside the cell, glucose is phosphorylated by glucokinase to become glucose-6-phosphate, from which the intracellular metabolism of glucose begins. Intracellular enzymes can tightly control conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to the glycerol backbone of triacylglycerol’s through modulation by phosphofructokinase. In contrast with glucose, fructose enters cells via a Glut-5 transporter that does not depend on insulin. This transporter is absent from pancreatic ÃŽ ² cells and the brain, which indicates limited entry of fructose into these tissues. Glucose provides â€Å"satiety† signals to the brain that fructose cannot pro vide because it is not transported into the brain. Once inside the cell, fructose is phosphorylated to form fructose-1-phosphate (26). In this configuration, fructose is readily cleaved by aldolase to form trioses that are the backbone for phospholipid and triacyglycerol synthesis. Fructose also provides carbon atoms for synthesis of long-chain fatty acids, although in humans, the quantity of these carbon atoms is small. Thus, fructose facilitates the biochemical formation of triacylglycerols more efficiently than does glucose (3). For example, when a diet containing 17% fructose was provided to healthy men and women, the men, but not the women, showed a highly significant increase of 32% in plasma triacylglycerol concentrations (27). In the United States, HFCS is found in almost all foods containing caloric sweeteners. These include most soft drinks and fruit drinks, candied fruits and canned fruits, dairy desserts and flavored yogurts, most baked goods, many cereals, and jellies. Over 60% of the calories in apple juice, which is used as the base for many of the fruit drinks, come from fructose, and thus apple juice is another source of fructose in the diet. Lists of HFCS-containing foods can be obtained from organizations concerned with HFCS-related allergies (33). It is clear that almost all caloric sweeteners used by manufacturers of soft drinks and fruit drinks are HFCS (4, 34). In fact, about two-thirds of all HFCS consumed in the United States are in beverages. Aside from beverages, there is no definitive literature on the proportion of caloric sweeteners that is HFCS in other processed foods. HFCS is found in most processed foods; however, the exact compositions are not available from either the manufactur er or any publicly available food-composition table. What’s in the name of HFCS? Corn is high in starch, which is simply chains of glucose molecules held together. When chains are broken apart, individual glucose molecules are released and form glucose syrup. In the 1970s, scientist learned how to convert some of that glucose into fructose, and the resulting product was named high- fructose corn syrup. At the time, all other corn syrups were made of glucose. Although accurate relative to the term glucose syrup, the name high-fructose corn syrup has, over the years, been a source of confusion for consumers and scientists, alike. Commercially, various forms of HFCS are available with different percentages of fructose and glucose. The most commonly used are HFCS-42 and HFCS-55 which contain 42% and 55% fructose respectively. Thus, despite the name, HFCS is not particularly high in fructose compared to sucrose. In 1983, the FDA approved HFCS as Generally Recognized as safe (GRAS), and that decision was reaffirmed in 1996. To be included in the FDA’s GRAS list, evidence must exist that the ingredient is safe under the conditions of its intended use, and the approval process involves an extensive review of the science, including estimated dietary intake. The FDA decision to approve and subsequently reaffirm HFCS as GRAS was based in part on the substantial similarity between HFCS and table sugar. Diabetes and HFCS Research is clear that sugar do not cause diabetes. The American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists identifies the following as risk factors for diabetes: family history of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, over-weight or obese state, sedentary lifestyle, ethnicity previously identified impaired glucose tolerance or impaired fasting glucose, hypertension, increased levels of triglycerides and/or low levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, history of gestational diabetes, history of delivery an infant weighing over nine pounds, polycystic ovary syndrome and psychiatric illness. Suffice it to say that diabetes is multifactorial. People who are old enough might remember that, Benefits of HFCS Compared with other sweeteners, HFCS has historically been relatively inexpensive. And while that HFCS is economical, HFCS is often the sweetener of choice because of its many positive attributes, which extend well beyond cost. HFCS sweetness and flavor profile is similar to table sugar. It also controls microbial growth more than sucrose and controls crystallization. High fructose helps retain texture in canned and baked goods. Another benefit of HFCS is that it reduces crystallization in canned, frozen and baked goods. It promotes ideal and controlled browning in baked goods and breakfast cereals. In the same way HFCS stables temperatures fluctuations and wide ranges of acidity. It blends easily with other ingredients. In the same way HFCS lowers freezing points which contribute to pourability of frozen beverage concentrates. High Fructose Conspiracy The use of high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) has increased over the past several decades in the United States while overweight and obesity rates have risen dramatically. Some scientists hypothesize that HFCS consumption has uniquely contributed to the increasing mean body mass index (BMI) of the U.S. population. The Center for Food, Nutrition, and Agriculture Policy convened an expert panel to discuss the published scientific literature examining the relationship between consumption of HFCS or soft drinks (proxy for HFCS) and weight gain. The authors conducted original analysis to address certain gaps in the literature. Evidence from ecological studies linking HFCS consumption with rising BMI rates is unreliable. Evidence from epidemiologic studies and randomized controlled trials is inconclusive. Studies analyzing the differences between HFCS and sucrose consumption and their contributions to weight gain do not exist. HFCS and sucrose have similar monosaccharide compositions and sweet ness values. The fructose: glucose (F:G) ratio in the U.S. food supply has not appreciably changed since the introduction of HFCS in the 1960s. It is unclear why HFCS would affect satiety or absorption and metabolism of fructose any differently than would sucrose. Based on the currently available evidence, the expert panel concluded that HFCS does not appear to contribute to overweight and obesity any differently than do other energy sources. Research recommendations were made to improve our understanding of the association of HFCS and weight gain. Overweight and obesity have become increasingly problematic in the United States from an individual and a population perspective. According to the body mass index (BMI) categories defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), about 65% of the U.S. adult population aged 20-74 years is currently overweight. In addition, 31% of all overweight adults are classified as obese. In 1976-80, only 47% and 15% of adults in the United States were considered overweight and obese, respectively (CDC, 2004). About 16% of American children and adolescents aged 6-19 years are also currently overweight. Two decades ago, about 6% of individuals in this age group were classified as overweight (CDC, 2004). Prior to 1976-80, such dramatic overweight and obesity rates were not observed in the United States. Overweight and obese individuals are subject to societal stigmatization and are at increased risk for deleterious health conditions, including type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, osteoarthritis, and some cancers (CDC, 2004). Overweight and obesity increase health care costs (USDA, 2004) and mortality rates (Mokdad et al., 2004, 2005; Flegal et al., 2005). Overweight and obesity are influenced by many genetic and environmental contributors, including race/ethnicity, age, physical activity, sedentary behaviors, food consumption patterns, smoking, technological advancements, and psychological factors (CDC, 2004; Columbia Univ., 2000; Rashad and Grossman 2004). Researchers, government officials, politicians, and activist organizations are contributing significant resources in an attempt to understand and reduce the overweight and obesity epidemic in the United States. All sources of energy consumed in excess of energy needs can contribute to increased BMI and risk of overweight and obesity. However, several arguments suggest that, in addition to providing energy, high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) may contribute to the development of overweight and obesity via other mechanisms. In the United States, HFCS has increasingly replaced refined sugar (sucrose) in many foods and most sweetened beverages. Outside the United States, HFCS is not used extensively, and sucrose continues to be the primary caloric sweetener. Some evidence suggests that high consumption of fructose plays a role in the epidemics of obesity, hypertension, diabetes, and kidney disease. In the U.S., these epidemics have been paralleled by a rise in sugar consumption. High intake of free fructose (found in high-fructose corn syrup, but not in sucrose) is associated with hypertension and hyperlipidemia in animals and with dyslipidemia and insulin resistance in adults. Further, small particle size of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is associated with obesity, the metabolic syndrome, and central adiposity in older children and adults. Investigators in Switzerland examined the relation between dietary fructose consumption and obesity, distribution of body fat, plasma lipids, and LDL particle size in a convenience sample of 74 children (age range, 6-14 years) recruited from schools and pediatric clinics; 43 children were overweight (mean BMI, 23.4), and 31 were normal weight (mean BMI, 15.9). Dietary intake was measured by two 24-hour dietary recalls and a 1-day weighed food record. LDL particle size, triglycerides, and serum cholesterol were measured after a 12-hour fast. Overweight children had significantly higher plasma triglyceride levels, lower high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels, and smaller LDL particle size than normal-weight children. LDL particle size was associated with overall adiposity and central adiposity. The only dietary factors that correlated significantly with LDL particle size were total fructose intake and grams of fructose per 1000 kcal consumed; higher fructose consumption was inversely associated with LDL particle size, independent of adiposity. Fructose intake did not correlate with any other lipid variable. Some claim that HFCSs global expansion and the parallel increase in obesity are linked. The concerned dietitians argue that, unlike glucose, which triggers appetite-suppressing signals in the body, fructose does not tell its eaters to stop . The theory remains unproven, but a growing body of literature has suggested the syrup may indeed counteract the satiation-hormone leptin. Conflicting research, supported by the American Beverage Institute, insists HFCS is no different than other sweeteners and is safe in moderation. The latest health concern stems from a recent Environment Health study that found mercury in samples from two HFCS manufacturers. Chemicals mixed during production to stabilize pH may have contributed the toxic metal, the study said. The industry accuses the research of using scant data of questionable quality. The environmental impact of HFCS depends on how the corn is grown. Conventional farming practices use significant water resources, pesticides, and fertilizers, leading to widespread water pollution and nutrient-depleted soil. Corn production has also become a major contributor to climate change. In The Omnivores Dilemma, author Michael Pollan estimates that between one-quarter and one-third gallons (about 1.0 to 1.25 liters) of oil are needed per bushel of corn to create the pesticides, fertilizers, and tractor gasoline, and to harvest, dry, and transport the corn. The U.S. high-fructose corn syrup industry used about 490 million bushels of corn last year, according to USDA. Fructose is a sweet tasting sugar that is found naturally in fruits and some vegetables and has been part of the human dietin modest amountsfor eons. The increasing consumption of sugar has dramatically increased our exposure to fructose (1). Sugar consumption has risen more than 40-fold since the Declaration of Independence was signed 250 years ago, and more than 40% of the added sugars in our diet are in sugar-sweetened beverages and fruit drinks (2,3). Thus, the principal sources of fructose in our diet are now sugar and high-fructose corn syrup, each of which has about 50% fructose. The intake of soft drinks has risen fivefold since 1950 (4,5) (Fig. 1) and with it the intake of fructose. The rise in the consumption of high-fructose corn syrup in beverages has paralleled the rise in the prevalence of obesity and the metabolic syndrome and is associated with the appearance of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (6-8). Although association does not prove causation, it has stimulated re search to understand whether current levels of fructose intake in beverages pose a health risk. Over the past decade fructose from either sucrose or high-fructose corn syrup has received growing attention as it has been associated with a widening group of health-related problems. Several meta-analyses have shown a relationship between the consumption of sugar-sweetened soft drinks and obesity (9-11). The relation of these beverages to obesity can be attributed to the increased caloric intake and to the fact that beverages do not suppress the intake of other foods to an appropriate degreethus beverage calories serve as add-on calories enhancing the risk of obesity (12) (Fig. 1). Meta-analyses have also suggested that the consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages is related to the risk of diabetes, the metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular disease

Friday, October 18, 2019

Business information system Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Business information system - Essay Example In this paper we will discuss different aspects of data warehouse. This section will explain four main characteristics of data warehouse. These characteristics give a more clear view of data warehouse. First characteristic of data warehouse is â€Å"Subject Oriented† (Kimball & Ralph 2002), It means data warehouse should be built for a specific subject or domain. It also means that Data that provides information about the concerning topic/ subject instead of organizations ongoing processes. Second characteristic is â€Å"integrated† nature of data warehouse. It Means data that is gathered from different sources are integrated into a single structure. Third characteristic is â€Å"Time-variant†: It means all data that is stored in the data warehouse is recognized with a specific time period. Forth and last characteristic is â€Å"Non-volatile† nature of data warehouse. Data is never deleted from data warehouse. But when it exceeds from a certain level, it is archived and stored at differ places (Kimball & Ralph 2002). There is a question about data warehouse: When data warehouse has data in terabits, then how it can handle such amount of data? The answer is: data warehouse uses parallelism approach to handle such amount of data. By this approach data is divided into small parts and parallel unit of data warehouse store retrieve and process them individually (Inmon 1995). Architecture of data warehouse consists of different logical layers (Inmon 1995). First layer is input or source layer, then processing layer, out put layer, decision support layer, etc. At source layer we have our data sources; these can be data bases, legacy system or data from web. After extracting this data from the source a process of transformation is applied on it to bring it into coherent format. Because data can be extracted from any type of sources, it contains

Managing information systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Managing information systems - Essay Example This report is aimed at assessing the need of information for the better management and handling of the huge event of the London Olympics 2012. This report will offer a great assistance in managing, controlling and handling the event viewers and public approaching the city. Management information systems have turned out to be significant component of every business that allows extensive management of the organizational data and information processing, storage, handling and management. It is really difficult for an organization to handle the organizational management tasks without having management information systems facility. The introduction of basic terms is essential before defining management information system. Data are combination of unrefined facts representing events taking place in organizations or the physical environment prior to they have been structured and managed into a structure that people can recognize and utilize. Data can include text, numbers, images and videos. On the other hand, information refers to data that have been transformed into a structure that is important and functional to human beings (Shelly, Cashman, & Vermaat, 2005, p. 6; Norton, 2001, p. 4; Laudon & Laudon, 1999, p. 7). According to (Turban, Leidner, McLean, & Wetherbe, 2005, p. 18), an information system gathers, stores, operates, evaluates, and distributes information for a particular function. Similar to any other system, an information system consists of inputs (such as instructions and data) and outputs (reports, calculations). It performs operations on the inputs by using technology like PCs and develops outputs that are delivered to users or to other systems by means of electronic networks (Turban, Leidner, McLean, & Wetherbe, 2005, p. 18). â€Å"The term information system can be described technically as a collection of interrelated components that bring together, process,

Issues Related to Communication in Contemporary Society Essay

Issues Related to Communication in Contemporary Society - Essay Example Culture has a great impact on communication in society for a variety of reasons. Among these is that culture provides the information that will help in understanding each other hence the eventual successful communication (Giri, 1). Culture in brief can be defined as all the activities and events that make up the life of a people who stay at certain geographical area. Through culture people are able to socialise and in this it provides the information and tools that will be in communication. Culture normally gives the norms and habits that are acceptable. In order to fit into a society one has to be able to be as everyone else. By this they have to adopt all the beliefs and norms in the society. Failure to this will lead to one being treated as an outsider and in such instances the information availed becomes limited and reduces the chances of being able to communicate. In addition without socialization, the ability to communicate may be hampered due to being unable to understand the practices of a people hence limiting the level of communication that can take place (Hauben, 2). How Culture Impacts on Communication According to Giri (1), to every culture there a certain behaviour that the males and females depending on the age will be prescribed. Hence according to the culture there will be certain institutional cultures that will be allowed along with roles in gender. Failure to observe this can lead to alienation by the society. Hence in order for an individual to properly communicate in society there is the need to act and behave within these standards in order to be accepted. Among this include the communication aspect, in this there are topics and approaches that certain genders and ages have to adopt. This will clearly impact on the level of communication as they will consider the topics and people to talk to. In addition, depending on the culture one will develop views that may be associated to either the culture or political background and this will affe ct the approach to various issues. The conversational styles learned from the culture in the society are another factor to consider as it will impact on the way one talks and acts in various situations. The culture also shapes the kind of person will become. Through to the culture and values that are practiced the personality of a person becomes shaped. In this they end having low self-esteem or the level of disclosure will also be impacted. Through this the person will limit the amount of information that they give out and receive. In doing so, the ability to communicate is hampered as no free flow of information will be able to take place. Another issue about culture is that it provides the tool that is used commonly on the day-to-day communication. By this it implies the language that is used. Each society has a culture and in this culture will be the language that is used. If one does not belong to the society, they will definitely not know the language in use and in this will b ring out the biggest challenge to communication. Hence the need to know the language in use cannot be overemphasised (Jandt, 294). Novinger (1), states that in a culture there are a certain pattern of habits and bodily behaviours that help in the interpersonal behaviours. Besides, there also the various parameters that are used in the context of interpersonal interaction. Most of the parameters

Thursday, October 17, 2019

Text Analysis 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Text Analysis 2 - Essay Example Theodore of Sykeon, 1.2). The Lord Christ accepted the plea put forward by the icons and granted St. Theodore an extension of fifteen years in life. After the icons’ imploration was accepted St. Theodore soon regained his health and was able to live the life which he nearly lost. The icons played the role of an intermediary on behalf of St. Theodore pleading to God to grant him more years of life, which was accepted. This is why the Byzantines attached great importance to icons as religious figures, as evident in their art, because of their piety and role as mediators between God and humans. This story shows how the icons’ pleading convinced God of granting more life to St. Theodore and hence, this explains the importance of icons in Byzantine. Icons were held in great respect in Byzantium due to its religious symbolism. Icons represented sacred images or symbols of saints, Christ or Virgin Mary and were constructed out of a variety of media. The icons were so pervasive in Byzantium that they were found in different sizes and forms. Icons represented religious figures and were given much admiration. It can be observed that icons occupy a central place in Byzantine Art due to their connection with religion. Icons had great religious importance because of their association with holiness and divinity. From the story of St. Theodore, it is evident that icons played a central role in bringing back the saint from the edge of death by pleading to God. So, icons portrayed religious figures who were essentially holy and sacred. By the life granted to him by God, St, Theodore continued to do many miracles. He gained the support and admiration of various people who left their homes and journeyed their way to his monastery to serve him. All those who were healed refused to go home and stayed with St. Theodore. After the workmen let the demons free from the hill, the village fell into

Topic on Dicrimination - Crytically analyse sexual harrasment relating Essay

Topic on Dicrimination - Crytically analyse sexual harrasment relating to women under the 2010 Equality Act - Essay Example This act puts on notice to all people who deal with the group termed as protected individuals, which women are covered. Any organization, business, schools and institutions of higher learning as well as government offices have to be aware of this rule. Disregarding this act can lead to severe penalties and adverse consequences. The equality act 2010 promises to safeguard the rights of women against any form of harassment and it is the responsibility of all institutions having women employees or students to be aware of it, what needs to be done and the possible consequences of disregarding this law. The 2010 Equality Act The equality act 2010 is one of the key milestones the United Kingdom legislatures have achieved in the last few decades. It has come to attention to them that some people in the society are discriminated to some extent. Since they are in the developed and modern world, they should have equal opportunities. Women are discriminated against in so many ways; for example, most of the high ranking jobs are mostly men dominated. Looking at the United Kingdom for example, more than half of United Kingdom populations are women. However, more than 80% of the United Kingdom parliaments in both houses are men.2 Although men maybe capable of passing laws and policies that impact the whole jurisdiction, would it not be better for women to be better represented in the Parliament? This is not any different in the other sectors of the economy. At the same time, women are exposed to a lot of harassment including sexual harassment in their places of work. 3 Women are constantly harassed by men in their work places. The managers and directors may not harass women in their quest for employment but when they get the job, they may be harassed by the male colleagues they get in their new place of work. Some of the highest management officials may be aware about such behaviour but do nothing about it. These findings were important in the inspiration of making the equal ity act 2010. 4 The ideas of equality in the United Kingdom started well back in the 1970s. However, there are some laws and policies made in the 1960s that had an impact in this act for example the commonwealth immigrants’ act in 1962 and the race relations act in 1965. 5The United Kingdom parliament passed the equal pay act in 1970. This was followed by the sexual discrimination act in 1975, the Race relations act in 1976, the disability discrimination act in 1995, the equality act part two in 2006, the Employment Equality (Religion or Belief) Regulations 2003, the Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2003, the Employment Equality (Age) Regulations 2006 and the Equality Act (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2007. Despite the passing of these laws and regulations, it seems like the United Kingdom parliament was just but mincing words. Little differences were reported in all the sectors involved in this. Some even went from bad to worse, for example the salarie s disparities between men and women. BBC reported recently that the salary gap between men and women has been increasing recently. That would not be expected even in 1975, after the passing of the equal pay act in 1970 assuming that the five years were used for implementation of the policy. 6 Experts claim that the United Kingdom Parliament has been relaxing in implementation of

Wednesday, October 16, 2019

Issues Related to Communication in Contemporary Society Essay

Issues Related to Communication in Contemporary Society - Essay Example Culture has a great impact on communication in society for a variety of reasons. Among these is that culture provides the information that will help in understanding each other hence the eventual successful communication (Giri, 1). Culture in brief can be defined as all the activities and events that make up the life of a people who stay at certain geographical area. Through culture people are able to socialise and in this it provides the information and tools that will be in communication. Culture normally gives the norms and habits that are acceptable. In order to fit into a society one has to be able to be as everyone else. By this they have to adopt all the beliefs and norms in the society. Failure to this will lead to one being treated as an outsider and in such instances the information availed becomes limited and reduces the chances of being able to communicate. In addition without socialization, the ability to communicate may be hampered due to being unable to understand the practices of a people hence limiting the level of communication that can take place (Hauben, 2). How Culture Impacts on Communication According to Giri (1), to every culture there a certain behaviour that the males and females depending on the age will be prescribed. Hence according to the culture there will be certain institutional cultures that will be allowed along with roles in gender. Failure to observe this can lead to alienation by the society. Hence in order for an individual to properly communicate in society there is the need to act and behave within these standards in order to be accepted. Among this include the communication aspect, in this there are topics and approaches that certain genders and ages have to adopt. This will clearly impact on the level of communication as they will consider the topics and people to talk to. In addition, depending on the culture one will develop views that may be associated to either the culture or political background and this will affe ct the approach to various issues. The conversational styles learned from the culture in the society are another factor to consider as it will impact on the way one talks and acts in various situations. The culture also shapes the kind of person will become. Through to the culture and values that are practiced the personality of a person becomes shaped. In this they end having low self-esteem or the level of disclosure will also be impacted. Through this the person will limit the amount of information that they give out and receive. In doing so, the ability to communicate is hampered as no free flow of information will be able to take place. Another issue about culture is that it provides the tool that is used commonly on the day-to-day communication. By this it implies the language that is used. Each society has a culture and in this culture will be the language that is used. If one does not belong to the society, they will definitely not know the language in use and in this will b ring out the biggest challenge to communication. Hence the need to know the language in use cannot be overemphasised (Jandt, 294). Novinger (1), states that in a culture there are a certain pattern of habits and bodily behaviours that help in the interpersonal behaviours. Besides, there also the various parameters that are used in the context of interpersonal interaction. Most of the parameters

Tuesday, October 15, 2019

Topic on Dicrimination - Crytically analyse sexual harrasment relating Essay

Topic on Dicrimination - Crytically analyse sexual harrasment relating to women under the 2010 Equality Act - Essay Example This act puts on notice to all people who deal with the group termed as protected individuals, which women are covered. Any organization, business, schools and institutions of higher learning as well as government offices have to be aware of this rule. Disregarding this act can lead to severe penalties and adverse consequences. The equality act 2010 promises to safeguard the rights of women against any form of harassment and it is the responsibility of all institutions having women employees or students to be aware of it, what needs to be done and the possible consequences of disregarding this law. The 2010 Equality Act The equality act 2010 is one of the key milestones the United Kingdom legislatures have achieved in the last few decades. It has come to attention to them that some people in the society are discriminated to some extent. Since they are in the developed and modern world, they should have equal opportunities. Women are discriminated against in so many ways; for example, most of the high ranking jobs are mostly men dominated. Looking at the United Kingdom for example, more than half of United Kingdom populations are women. However, more than 80% of the United Kingdom parliaments in both houses are men.2 Although men maybe capable of passing laws and policies that impact the whole jurisdiction, would it not be better for women to be better represented in the Parliament? This is not any different in the other sectors of the economy. At the same time, women are exposed to a lot of harassment including sexual harassment in their places of work. 3 Women are constantly harassed by men in their work places. The managers and directors may not harass women in their quest for employment but when they get the job, they may be harassed by the male colleagues they get in their new place of work. Some of the highest management officials may be aware about such behaviour but do nothing about it. These findings were important in the inspiration of making the equal ity act 2010. 4 The ideas of equality in the United Kingdom started well back in the 1970s. However, there are some laws and policies made in the 1960s that had an impact in this act for example the commonwealth immigrants’ act in 1962 and the race relations act in 1965. 5The United Kingdom parliament passed the equal pay act in 1970. This was followed by the sexual discrimination act in 1975, the Race relations act in 1976, the disability discrimination act in 1995, the equality act part two in 2006, the Employment Equality (Religion or Belief) Regulations 2003, the Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2003, the Employment Equality (Age) Regulations 2006 and the Equality Act (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2007. Despite the passing of these laws and regulations, it seems like the United Kingdom parliament was just but mincing words. Little differences were reported in all the sectors involved in this. Some even went from bad to worse, for example the salarie s disparities between men and women. BBC reported recently that the salary gap between men and women has been increasing recently. That would not be expected even in 1975, after the passing of the equal pay act in 1970 assuming that the five years were used for implementation of the policy. 6 Experts claim that the United Kingdom Parliament has been relaxing in implementation of

Unifying Effect Essay Example for Free

Unifying Effect Essay Before the advent of the nineteenth century, Argentina, like the rest of the Latin American region, had been under the rule of Spain. As such, its people had no clear cultural identification that would clearly pronounce their difference from their long-term colonizers (Chasteen and Wood 106). As a result of the colonization, many Europeans made permanent settlements in different areas in Buenos Aires and the rest of the country. One of the countrys most well known foreign-dominated communities is a settlement near the Riachuelo River, known as La Boca, of predominantly Italian residents1. When Argentina gained independence in 1816, social conflicts arising from racial and cultural differences were aplenty. La Bocas neighborhood exhibited this kind of struggle. Conflict in the community existed between the middle-class Italians and the underclass mestizo tenants of houses owned by the immigrants2. The Europeans were protective of their cultural identity and viewed the influx of a large underclass a threat to their heritage. When football became a popular culture in the country in the early twentieth century, the community gave rise to one of its own, the Club Atletico Boca Juniors3. This paper will explore how Club Atletico Boca Juniors succeeded in promoting unity and cultural identity within a divided community during Argentinas search for a unifying, national identity that would eliminate social conflicts before the 1930s economic depression. 1. Emanuela Guano, A Stroll Through la Boca: The Politics and Poetics of Spatial Experience in a Buenos Aires. Space Culture Vol. 6 2003): 356. 2. Ibid. 357 3. Vic Duke and Liz Crolley, Futbol, Politicians and the People: Populism and Politics in Argentina. International Journal of the History of Sport Vol. 18 (2001): 97 2 La Boca and the Class Struggle Within La Boca, one of the barrios or neighborhood in Buenos Aires, the capital city of Argentina, is celebrated for its strong Italian heritage particularly the immigrants passion for arts, work ethics, and family traditions and values4. When you hear of these characteristics describing Italians, what comes to mind is a romanticized vision of a quaint neighborhood with smiling people and the smell of food permeating the air. One wouldnt imagine an ugly part of the picture. Indeed, when you walk through La Boca, you will see structures three story high and tall sidewalks made to protect the houses from the Riachuelo River floods. The smell of pastry and bread interspersed with the smell of sewage from the river5. What a newcomer wouldnt know is how the middle-class Italian-Argentine resented the presence of a large group of mestizos in the area, who were poor and often from the rural areas and other countries, seeking better fortune in Buenos Aires, which was then a city with booming trade6. For the large part, the immigrants distrusted these newcomers, owing to their darker coloring and uncultured ways. The immigrants believed that they pose a threat to La Bocas Italian identity. Often, the migrants were the subjects of unrelenting discrimination. The boquenses, as these middle-class Italians were called, created ways to define their heritage to draw the line among those who belong and those who do not. One example of which is the boquenses characterization of the Italian-Argentine residents as the hardworking, honest lot, while the newcomers were delegated as being the lawless mestizos (Guano 362). ______________ 4. Emanuela Guano, A Stroll Through la Boca: The Politics and Poetics of Spatial Experience in a Buenos Aires. Space Culture Vol. 6 (2003): 356. 5. Ibid. 360. 6. J. A. Mangan, The Early Evolution of Modern Sport in Latin America: A Mainly English Middle-Class Inspiration? International Journal of the History of Sport Vol. 18 (2001): 21. 3 In the later years, the children of these immigrants strove for assimilation in the society. Instead of just being immigrants, they wanted to become full Argentines. Although the electoral process was modified to grant them Argentine status, they were still basically outsiders7. This is one of the struggles that the communitys soccer club was able to overcome. The Advent of Soccer and the Search for a National Identity in Argentina To understand better the social conflict in La Boca, it is important to understand how this kind of class division existed in Buenos Aires and all throughout Argentina; and how the nation as a whole found a common anchor not through any political means, but by what started to be a European form of entertainment. The nineteenth century Latin America was a region of class conflict, diplomatic turmoil, capitalist exploitation, social inequality and political paranoia (Mangan 35). Great Britain was the primary force in Latin America, taking the place of Spain and Portugal but in a different manner. The Britons were no colonizers to these races. Instead, it forged a strong economic relationship with the region. Argentina at that time had a booming enterprise comparable to those of Australia, Canada and the United States (Mangan 12). As a result of Britain and Argentinas economic ties, some Englishmen settled in the country. To keep their ties to their motherland, the English started playing their own sports with no other major purpose than for their own enjoyment. Generally, the Britons kept to themselves. It was only during sports activities that they were in close cultural and social contact ______________ 7. Matthew B. Karush, National Identity in the Sports Pages: Football and the Mass Media in 1920s. Academy of American Franciscan History Vol. 60 (2003): 12. 4 with the Argentines. The establishment of English sports in Argentina, in the long run, had significant cultural outcome (Mangan 13). Argentine soccer had its beginnings in 1867 when the Buenos Aires Football Club was established by Thomas and James Hogg whose father was from Yorkshire, England. The association had its first game in June 20 of the same year, with all the players being British. The Argentine Football Club was founded in 1893, with Alexander Watson Hutton being its first president, later dubbed as the Father of Argentine Soccer (Mangan 26). Boca Junior was formed in 1905 and has held up until the present its base in the Italian barrio of La Boca alongside the port in Buenos Aires (Duke and Crolley 97). Of all the sports that were introduced in Argentina, it was football that captured the heart of the masses. It gave them the chance to forget their troubles and create opportunities for pleasure and illusion8. In the early years of the sport, there two kinds of associations. One was the all-English clubs that value sportsmanship and fair play, while the other was comprised of local players who played to win. While the English clubs practiced in schools, the other teams practiced in the streets and on wide stretches of vacant lands. This disparity in their learning is perhaps what created the difference in how they play9. During the 1920s, a new distinctive, urban culture in Buenos Aires emerged. Football and tango transformed into the highest representations of being Argentinidad (Karush 11). Football was seen by the government as the unifying force to create homogeneity among the Argentine masses and the foreign-born working class who, despite their assimilation in the ______________ 8. J. A. Mangan, The Early Evolution of Modern Sport in Latin America: A Mainly English Middle-Class Inspiration? International Journal of the History of Sport Vol. 18 (2001): 35. 9. Vic Duke and Liz Crolley, Futbol, Politicians and the People: Populism and Politics in Argentina. International Journal of the History of Sport Vol. 18 (2001): 97 5 society, often found themselves not fully belonging. Though football started as a popular culture, it later turned into a stepping-stone for the process of hegemonic nation building10. How Boca Juniors Affected La Boca The national identity images advocated by the new mass culture in the 1920s did not necessarily made Argentina’s population with differing interests turn into a harmonious community11. But at least in La Boca, the Italian immigrants found something in common with the migrant mestizos. Where once there were distinct boundaries established between the classes, that division did not manifest in the sports club. For once, the Boca Juniors association represented the community as a whole. The sport, being of English origin, made Italians and non-Italians both outsiders, thus fostering a common bond between them. More importantly, the club provided the younger immigrants a chance to fully assimilate in the Argentine society, without being differentiated. Boca Juniors was not about the diversity in the community, but rather about the community as a whole. Boca Junior became the center of sporting, political and social aspects of the barrio where it was based. It came to represent the community and helped the children of the immigrant population get integrated into mainstream Argentine society (Duke and Crolley 97). The club after rejecting any other name, chose Boca to express the strong affinity they have with their neighborhood. Boca, literally means, mouth of the river. Juniors, on the other hand, showed that 10. Matthew B. Karush, National Identity in the Sports Pages: Football and the Mass Media in 1920s. Academy of American Franciscan History Vol. 60 (2003): 12. 11. Ibid. 32 6 they consider themselves children of the barrio. In short, the Boca Juniors stand for Children of the La Boca neighborhood, dispelling any cultural classification between the middle class Italian immigrants and the lower class rural folks. But not only was Boca Junior a unifying force for its local community, it also established Argentinas reputation in the world sporting community. The turning point in the countrys recognition as a football great came in the 1928 Olympics in Amsterdam when Boca Juniors won a silver12. Before that, Boca Juniors in 1925 made the famous tour of Europe that served as a foundation of Argentinas reputation in the football field. The team had a goal to show that they could play without too much violent contact, and at the same time win. Boca Juniors showed and astonished Europeans with their elegant and fluid movements, total control of the ball, masterful dribbling and the acrobatic, spectacular and artistic movements13. The Argentine football players proved that despite having a reputation of playing to win, it was possible to play and win the game using less physical strength and continuity (Karush 6). 2. Archetti, Eduardo P. In search of national identity: Argentinian football and Europe. International Journal of the History of Sport Vol. 12 (1995): 205 13. Ibid. Works Cited Archetti, Eduardo P. In search of national identity: Argentinian football and Europe. International Journal of the History of Sport Vol. 12(1995): 2, 201 219. 9 November 2007 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1080/09523369508713903 Chasteen, James A. and Wood, John Charles. Problems in Modern Latin American History: Sources and Interpretations, Completely Revised and Updated. Latin American Silhouettes (2004): 106-110. Duke, Vic and Crolley, Liz. Futbol, Politicians and the People: Populism and Politics in Argentina. International Journal of the History of Sport Vol. 18 (2001): 3, 93 116. 9 November 2007 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1080/714001587 Guano, Emanuela. A Stroll Through la Boca: The Politics and Poetics of Spatial Experience in a Buenos Aires. Space and Culture Vol. 6 (2003): 356-376. 9 November 2007 http://sac. sagepub. com/cgi/content/abstract/6/4/356 Mangan, J. A. The Early Evolution of Modern Sport in Latin America: A Mainly English Middle-Class Inspiration? International Journal of the History of Sport Vol. 18 (2001): 3, 9 42. Rodriguez, Maria Graciela. The Place of Women in Argentinian Football. International Journal of the History of Sport Vol. 22 (2005): 2, 231 245. 9 November 2007 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1080/09523360500035867

Monday, October 14, 2019

Model Driven Development Vs Test Driven Development Computer Science Essay

Model Driven Development Vs Test Driven Development Computer Science Essay Model driven development is a top-down, traditional approach that has been around for a long time. Test Driven Development (TDD) is a bottom-up, new approach in the sense that it has picked up its value in the recent years. The focus of MDD as the name implies is on the models rather than on code that guides the development of software whereas focus of TDD is on the tests. There have been several changes to MDD since the beginning to deal with the changing environment and complexities raised by projects. TDD started as a part of extreme programming (XP) methodology and has gained popularity among many developers as a separate practice itself. Traditional, hard cored MDD developers are accustomed to developing software that seems more natural to them considering it to be an Engineering approach. TDD developers approach the problem in a totally different perspective concentrating on customer views of the system. There are advantages and disadvantages to both approaches. For a high qual ity software product that meets the goals of the organization, it is important to understand and apply the most suitable methodology while making certain trade-offs if necessary. The best approach to follow depends on several factors including the type of organization, type of project, and experience the developers have. This paper is aimed at explaining Model driven and Test Driven development along with case study and observations. 1. Model Driven Development or MDD. Model can be precisely defined as â€Å"a description of a system from a particular perspective, omitting irrelevant detail so that the characteristics of interest are seen more clearly†. (Source: Patterns: Model-Driven Development Using IBM Rational Software Architect) Consider an example in which there is a pressing business need such as automation of certain processes and understanding the data collected in the business. In this situation a Business exists and there are people who are performing certain business activities in certain way. These are the people who are thinking of having a tool or a software product to help them increase their productivity and their functionality. These people who are called Domain Experts or Subject Matter experts or Business Experts know what they want. However, they currently do not have any software product that will help them to meet their needs. In this situation Domain Experts are the driving force. They do things in a certain way and expect the software product developed for them meet their needs should also do things in that manner. However, they do not know how a new software product will look like and how it will help them to meet their needs. People who develop this software product understand the needs , but they may miss the intricacies of the desired end product. Building a MODEL will help alleviate this situation. A MODEL can be a diagram, an animation or a presentation. If the Software that has to be developed is very small or involves 1 or 2 people, then the process need not be so much structured, even though it helps. However, while developing a large product which will involve tens or hundreds of people having different expertise, model will help them to accomplish this easily. A new product development building a Model is absolutely necessary. This is analogous to a civil Engineer creating a model of Building before it is actually built. Model Driven Development (MDD) is a methodology that focuses on designing models at an abstract level without considering the implementation details that guide the development process, focusing on one part of the system to manage complexity. Models help to analyze the problem and visualize the process. Most commonly used language for this purpose is Unified Modeling Language (UML). It establishes certain vocabulary and structure so as to understand and communicate between various developers. Artifacts are produced from the models, so the models are machine-readable, which is an important aspect of MDD. MDD is also called as â€Å"Model Driven Engineering†. An implementation of MDD is given by Object Management Group (OMG)s Model Driven Architecture (MDA). Focus of MDA is on forward engineering, i.e. creating code from modeling diagrams. Apart from MDA, there are also other views of MDD such as Domain Oriented Programming, Agile Model Driven Development, etc. MDA uses platform-independent model (PIM) to describe the system functionality as the first step. Platform Independent Model (PIM) is a generic way of representing the end view of the product without considering any technology or platforms going to be used. This model just transforms the Business requirements into a Model. This format does not contain any particular software code but shows the end state of the product in one of the Model development modes such as Diagrams, Flow Charts, and Animations etc. Based on the PIM and considering some economic conditions or availability, a proper platform is selected to develop the software. A model is then converted from PIM to platform specific model or PSM. . This contains software code at a higher level. Platform is a loose word in this context. This can be referred to type of hardware, software, operating system, programming language or combination of any of these put together. That is why choosing a platform is related to economic viability also. PSM can be thought of Developers model where as PIM can be thought of Domain Experts or End users model. UML representation using IBMs Rational Rose can be considered as PIM. Whereas, tools like IBM WebSphere Studio and Borland Together/J are used for developing PSM. In these, we have CODE VIEW and MODEL VIEW. These two views are synchronized together. When code is changed in Code View, it is reflected in the Model View and vice versa. The models may contain fixed and variable data, business requirements, presentation elements (forms, reports). If one of these elements changes, they can be incorporated into the model to see the changes that occur due to interdependencies. Based on the affects, all the other depending code can be changed accordingly to accommodate these changes. Models also describe what is called the Gap Analysis. Models are first built with an Ideal situation, but in reality the business processes and other aspects may be different. Therefore, the models will show the difference between the Real Life situation and the End State Ideal situations. This will help the Business units to define the changes in Business Practices or the Developers to meet the Business needs and bridge the gap. A well defined Structured System Analysis and Design (SSAD) is required to develop software based on Models. In this process, the design (Model) is taken as the basis to start with the development and as the development process is advanced, it is analyzed with the design and tested against the Model and re-visited to meet the requirements. Hence, software development using MDD approach requires Domain (Business) experts, software developers, Team leaders and Integration experts. Someone should also be able to play a Liaison role to understand both sides of the table Business side and Software side. This person will help each of the expert groups to understand the needs of other groups and will bridge the gap. Number of iterations in the project development process will be reduced drastically if this Liaison person has good knowledge and is an expert on both sides. MDD is used with many development processes such as waterfall model, iterative model, spiral model, etc. In MDD approach, a model plays an important role and forms the basis or driving mechanism to develop a software product. Test Driven Development: Test Driven Development (TDD) started its roots in Extreme Programming (XP) approach. Later on, it became a popular method by itself. TDD was originally called â€Å"Test First Programming†. TDD can best be described in three words as â€Å"Red-Green-Refactor† (source: Kent Beck). Simple essence of TDD is to write tests before the code is written. First, unit tests are written from the requirements. These tests will definitely fail because the code for it has not been written. In order to write the tests, it is necessary for the developer to understand the requirements well. Then, code that implements the test cases is written. The code that is written should be just enough so that the tests pass, no more, no less. This means that no prediction about the future story must be made. Test driven approach is â€Å"then there† approach. This means that code is written at that time from the user story requirements without making any assumptions or predictions about fu ture. After writing the code, the tests are run and seen if they succeed. If they do, then programmer can be assured that the requirements were met. After this, a process called refactoring is done. This refers to improving the quality of code and removing any duplication in the code. If the design is changed for the better, the developer can be sure he is not breaking any functionality by running the tests again. This process is repeated for the test cases that follow. This process is shown as a flowchart below: Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test-driven_development There are different issues to consider in this process. Test cases are written taking small steps at a time, such as implementation of one method. It is important to know the size of the test case and when the test case exceeds its limit of functionality to test. A test case contains the following: condition that specifies the systems state, an event that is to be tested, and finally systems state after the event has occurred. Almost every language has associated tools for writing these tests. In general, they are XUnit tests available for each language. For example, java has JUnit, C++ has cppUnit, .Net has NUnit, etc. The amount of designing that has to be done in TDD depends on developer. In Extreme Programming, no designing is done, directly jumping to test cases. However, some developers prefer to spend some time on design. Too much time should not be spent on the designs and deciding on that right amount of time to spend on it comes with experience. As suggested by Dave Chaplin, it takes almost a year for a good developer to learn most of the techniques in TDD. He divides the learning process in three stages. First stage would take three months to master writing the tests correctly. TDD is a totally different approach to take in developing software and most developers believe that hardest part about it is getting used to it and thinking in that direction. It takes another six months to learn about Mock objects. Last would be to be able to draw UML diagrams in a TDD perspective. This takes about three months. Those that become familiar with TDD find many advantages in it. These advantages are explained later in the paper. Pair programming is considered one of the best ways to develop a program using TDD. This is because another person can make sure you are going in right path. It is hard to make developers believe that this approach works. Also, management believes that it is a waste of money to make two people work on one feature while they can work on different features. Through test driven development, the focus is on customers requirements. TDD is now part of many other methodologies, such as Scrum, Agile Unified Process (AUP), and Rational Unified Process (AUP). TDD gives confidence to the developer and produces enthusiasm as they can see parts of the program coming together when they run the tests and see them pass. Case Study: Results of TDD and MDD are seen more effective by example. Therefore, I consider a case in which a Software Engineering class was given a choice of either doing MDD or TDD project. The projects were done for the same problem using different approaches. It was a calendar program that consisted of certain functionalities to fulfill. For TDD people, six user stories were given one after another without knowing what the next user story is. MDD people were given a problem definition and they were to submit GUI, design, code, tests at regular intervals. The functionalities that had to be implemented included finding the following: next date, previous date, zodiac sign, day of the week, next Friday the 13th, number of shopping days left until Christmas. These were each given as a user stories to TDD people. From the results of these, the following statistics were made: Model Driven Development approach results Criteria MDD User 1 User 2 User 3 User 4 User 5 User 6 Time To Code (hrs) 8 52 89 8.67 11 17 Time to Test (hrs) 2 15 13 3 3.3 2 NCSS (non comment source statements) 275 600 692 499 280 Number of Test Cases 109 142 51 Technology Used VBA Java Java (using Eclipse) C#.NET VS2008 C# VS Express C# Decision Complexity 79 59 Referential Complexity 26 52 Cyclomatic Complexity 105 111 83 GUI yes yes yes yes yes yes Test Driven Development approach results Criteria TDD User 7 User 8 User 9 User 10 User 11 User 12 User 13 User 14 User 15 User 16 User 17 User 18 Time to code 16.5 22 17 33 28 13.5 33 19.5 33 15 28 12.75 NCSS(non comment source Statements) 349 397 276 654 240 233 1095 279 196 298 328 277 Test cases 150 84 124 70 107 247 112 88 262 56 889 128 Technology C#.NET VS2008 Java Java Java VB.Net Express C VB .Net VBA Java Java VB.NET Java Decisional Complexity 106 66 76 76 97 115 62 57 77 145 81 Referential Complexity 12 43 40 24 24 34 19 102 9 160 29 Cyclomatic Complexity 118 109 117 100 65 121 149 81 159 86 115 110 GUI no no no no yes no no no no no No no Number of Times Refactored none 1 2 none 5 none 5 4 6 1 1 3 Observations: Even though there were almost twice as many people who did TDD as MDD, certain trends can be seen from the statistics. Since majority of the projects were developed using object oriented technology such as Java and C#, most of the observations are made based on these languages only. First and major difference that can be seen is creation of GUI. Only 1 out of 12 TDD people developed GUI while all of the six people who did through MDD developed it. One of the reasons for this is that in MDD, designing of GUI was first part of the task. In TDD, although there are tools that test a user interface, it is hard to obtain them and so user has to manually test them. Since it wasnt part of the requirement also, many had chosen to omit it. I noticed that neatest and well designed code came from most of MDD people. Even though there is refactoring in TDD, many had chosen not to do it. This can be seen by the statistics that 6 out of 12 people have either not done refactoring at all or did it only once. As research suggests, TDD is supposed to lead to high quality code. However, most of TDD projects code was of less quality. This comes to the point that in order to successfully carry out TDD, experience is needed. The lack of experience that most people had in doing a TDD might have been a factor for such quality. Many of TDD people had no experience in TDD methodology including me. As suggested by Dave Chaplin, in order to carry out TDD effectively, minimum one year of learning the techniques involved in the approach is needed for a good developer. Even though the quality and design is neater in MDD, number of lines of code was much less in TDD than MDD projects. In object oriented languages such as Java and C#, MDD projects had lines of code as 518 on an average while TDD projects had 350. This is partly due to refactoring eliminating unnecessary conditions and mostly due to the reason that since code was developed based on test cases, just about enough code that was necessary was written. Since the whole point of TDD is to start out with test cases, TDD projects have more test cases compared to MDD projects. For object oriented languages, TDD tests were 124 on average while MDD was 100. Although theory says that TDD results in highly cohesive and loosely coupled, but in practice, it is seldom like that. This point can be seen in this study. Most of the MDD projects were more cohesive and loosely coupled resulting in more reusable code compared to TDD. In TDD projects, it was seen that most of them had 2 or 3 classes at a maximum reducing cohesive nature and reusability. I observed that this is due to unpredictability of future user stories. MDD people can carefully plan the code such that it results in certain functions that can be used by other functions. In object oriented languages, correct amount of responsibilities and collaboration among objects in my opinion can be done more effectively if more designing is done. This is because it is much easier to see visually through the models. The reusability of the code in TDD also depends on the order of the user stories given. Most people reused day of the week code in shopping days till Christmas user story or Friday the 13th user story. Suppose that the user stories are given in a different order, then different approaches might be taken that might not result in the efficient piece of code. Refactoring tells you to remove duplications and keep the code clean, but the logic of the code will not change. In our case, if suppose number of shopping days left before Christmas was given before day of the week user story, then different approach might have been taken and the reusability of the day of the week code wouldnt have existed. It is easier to see collaborations and responsibilities of objects when the whole picture of the problem is present. Even the small amount of reusability that existed in TDD was due to the logical order in which the user stories were given. The time spent on the whole project for TDD is much less than MDD. Considering object oriented languages, TDD average time spent was 21 hours while MDD was 42 hours (almost double!!). TDD is proven to be faster and easier technique than MDD. In TDD, concentration is on current user story and it is faster to write test cases and code directly from user requirements. The time spent on test cases is paid off since no debugging has to be done at the end. Time and effort can be distributed and planned in advance in MDD. However, in TDD, since the amount of time and effort for the next user stories is hard to predict, it is difficult to plan. Some user stories take less amount of time while others consume lot of time. This can be seen in the case study. Most people said that finding zodiac sign took very less time and effort compared to finding the number of shopping days till Christmas . Pros and Cons of Using MDD approach From research and experience, these are some of the observations that were made on the MDD approach in general. A model in projects has following advantages It helps to break down the project into smaller code development pieces or modules which can be assigned to different teams. It helps each team to understand their role and how their part of the development is integrated into the whole product development The project managers and team leaders will understand on how to integrate all the modules and do testing. The end user will be able to visualize the integrated end product. If enough of time is spent in building a model properly, even though it takes time and effort, it will greatly reduce the time to build the product. A properly built model will also help in reducing the iterations of testing process, thus creating the integrations much quicker. There is also an economic advantage of building the models. A model will help to present a product to the investors easily and attract investments to fund the projects. Some disadvantages of using MDD approach The disadvantages of using MDD approach are not related to the approach itself, but rather it is related to the application of this approach. If MDD is not used properly, there will be extended delays in the product developments. Some of these possible setbacks are Building a Model will take lot of time and resources. MDD is not always â€Å"fit for all approach†. The project and product has to be analyzed before this approach is taken. Some people visualize a Model as an abstraction layer hiding all the complications of the product development process. Too much of abstraction may be good to certain audience in the project, but it over all defeats the purpose of building a model in the first place. So, care should be taken as not to ABSTRACT too much. If proper resources, such as, proper Domain experts are not involved while building a model, then the model as well as end product will be disastrous failure. MDD should not always be thought of the end point. Always underlying approach for each module should be associated with proper testing. Failure to consider the real life situations also causes the MDD unusable. The key to the whole process of Product development using MDD approach is having a proper liaison between Business group and IT group. Pros and Cons of Using TDD approach Some of the advantages of using TDD are: Since test cases are developed first, developer understands the requirements thoroughly in order to write them. The focus is on the functionality perspective of the client. TDD involves taking small steps at a time and focusing on one task at a time. Even though it consumes lot of time to write many unit test cases covering all possibilities, this makes it an advantage as it avoids debugging at later stages in the project. Finding bugs as early as possible is always beneficiary in terms of time and cost. Fixing bugs at a later stage is difficult because it is hard to determine what caused the bug. Since just enough code to pass the test is written, TDD will result in thorough testing covering all possible paths. If tests are written well, then it will produce stable code. Code is developed faster and there is working piece of code at every level, which inspires confidence and encourages the developer. Developer is aware of the progress made and can set goals to achieve a particular goal. TDD results in good design because of many factors. With experience, TDD can be a very effective method as it lets the developer think in small units of code leading to modularity and good design. This is also the result of looking at the problem from customers perspective to understand how it will be implemented. Refactoring also leads to producing good designs. Mocking and faking is beneficial in the sense that it will define the boundaries of the classes. This is because through mocking, you will find out what your classes should and should not know about the other class. This is the basic essence of encapsulation in any object oriented language. The test cases provide support for faster regression testing. On next iteration or anytime in future, when you add more tests, you can run all the tests to make sure that it works and if it doesnt, it is easy to see what part of the code broke. Some disadvantages with TDD approach are: TDD requires commitment and supporting management. Developers should be committed and write proper tests. If the tests are deleted or changed accidentally or purposefully, it will give false impression that the code is bugs-free. Support from management is important and they have to believe that this methodology works. If either of them does not exist, then TDD approach fails. Functional tests need to be done for programs that use a database or for creating user interfaces. For such things, using TDD approach is difficult. Tests and code are written by the same person most of the time and if the developer overlooks certain things, then it will affect the code as well and may not result in what is supposed to happen. If he interprets the requirements wrong, then the tests he writes and the code that implements them will turn out to be wrong and will lead to code that will not be as efficient as it should be. Another example would be if the developer doesnt check for certain specific inputs, then the code that needs to implement that will never be implemented. Having large number of working unit tests may build up over confidence that will lead to less concentrations on additional activities such as quality assurance evaluations. Unit tests only tell if the piece of code you wrote works. Other tests such as domain testing, integration testing, etc have to be done. Amount of coverage and details of testing that is done in TDD development cannot be reproduced at a later stage. So, these tests become an important aspect and it is necessary that they are well-written. There is no way to predict the type of user stories and it is not possible to gain a complete understanding of the system from the user stories. This leads to extensive code rewriting and refactoring. WHEN to use WHAT? This leads to the question of when is it appropriate to use TDD and when is it appropriate to use MDD. Software development is a process of developing a product to meet a certain business need. In a well defined environment and in large houses Software Development is done using the techniques described in Software Engineering and experience gained over the years. Many factors have to be taken into consideration when deciding on the methodology to use. These include things such as type of organization, management, type of project, experience of the developers, and availability of effective tools. Type of Project: Software development is done under two major circumstances 1. To develop altogether a new product a. A product that never existed before, but there is a need in the minds of people. A great example of this in recent years is ‘Youtube. There was no such product before, however, people had thought about having some kind of sharing videos. So, there is direc